Information about vitamin d deficiency treatment
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Vitamin D Deficiency and Related Disorders ========================================== Author: Vin Tangpricha, MD, PhD, Associate Professor of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Lipids, Emory University School of Medicine Coauthor(s): Natasha B Khazai, MD, Instructor of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Emory University School of Medicine Contributor Information and Disclosures
Updated: Oct 5, 2009 Print ThisPrint This
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Background Vitamin D deficiency in children can manifest as rickets (it is the most common cause of nutritional rickets), which presents as bowing of the legs. Vitamin D deficiency in adults results in osteomalacia, which presents as a poorly mineralized skeletal matrix. These adults can experience chronic muscle aches and pains.1 (See images below and Images 1-3.)
Findings in patients with rickets. Findings in patients with rickets.
CLOSE WINDOW Findings in patients with rickets.
Findings in patients with rickets. Radiograph in a 4-year-old girl with rickets depi...
Radiograph in a 4-year-old girl with rickets depicts bowing of the legs caused by loading. CLOSE WINDOW
Radiograph in a 4-year-old girl with rickets depi... Radiograph in a 4-year-old girl with rickets depicts bowing of the legs caused by loading.
Anteroposterior and lateral radiographs of the wr... Anteroposterior and lateral radiographs of the wrist of an 8-year-old boy with rickets demonstrates cupping and fraying of the metaphyseal region.
CLOSE WINDOW Anteroposterior and lateral radiographs of the wr...
Anteroposterior and lateral radiographs of the wrist of an 8-year-old boy with rickets demonstrates cupping and fraying of the metaphyseal region. Vitamin D is important for calcium homeostasis and for optimal skeletal health. The term vitamin D refers to either vitamin D2 or vitamin D3. Vitamin D3, also known as cholecalciferol, is either made in the skin or obtained in the diet from fatty fish. Vitamin D2, also known as ergocalciferol, is obtained from irradiated fungi, such as yeast. Vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 are used to supplement food products or are contained in multivitamins. Past studies suggested that vitamin D3 may be more effective than vitamin D2 in establishing normal vitamin D stores.2,3 However, a study by Holick and colleagues demonstrated that vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 appear to be equipotent in raising 25(OH)D concentrations when given in daily doses of 1000 IU.4
Pathophysiology Vitamin D deficiency can result from a variety of causes, including inadequate exposure to sunlight, malabsorption problems, lack of vitamin D in breast milk, and the effects of certain medications. (See Causes.)
The production of vitamin D3 in the skin involves a series of reactions initiating with 7-dehydrocholesterol. Upon exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation between the wavelengths of 290-315 nm, 7-dehydrocholesterol is converted to previtamin D3, which is then converted to vitamin D3 after a thermally induced isomerization reaction in the skin. From the skin, newly formed vitamin D3 enters the circulation by binding to vitamin D binding protein (DBP). In order to become active, vitamin D requires 2 sequential hydroxylations to form 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25OH2 D). Vitamin D is initially hydroxylated in the 25 position by the hepatic microsomal and/or mitochondrial enzyme vitamin D 25-hydroxylase. The second hydroxylation occurs in the kidney by the P450 enzyme 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1 alpha-hydroxylase. Upon entering the cell, the 1,25(OH)2 D hormone binds to the vitamin D receptor (VDR). The bound vitamin D receptor then forms a heterodimer with the retinoic acid X receptor (RXR). This heterodimer then goes to the nucleus to bind deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and increases transcription of vitamin D–related genes.
The major function of vitamin D is to increase the efficiency of calcium absorption from the small intestine. Heaney and colleagues demonstrated that maximum calcium absorption occurs at levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) greater than 32 ng/mL.5 Vitamin D also enhances the absorption of phosphorus from the distal small bowel. Adequate calcium and phosphorus absorption from the intestine is important for proper mineralization of the bone. The second major function of vitamin D is for the maturation of osteoclasts to resorb calcium from the bones. Inadequate circulating 25(OH)D is associated with elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH); this condition is called secondary hyperparathyroidism. The rise in PTH may result in increased mobilization of calcium from the bone, which results in decreased mineralization of the bone.
Of note, prolonged exposure to the sun does not cause vitamin D toxicity. This is because after prolonged UVB radiation exposure, the vitamin D made in the skin is further degraded to the inactive vitamin D metabolites tachysterol and lumisterol. Frequency
United States Vitamin D insufficiency is highest among people who are elderly, institutionalized, or hospitalized. In the United States, 60% of nursing home residents6 and 57% of hospitalized patients7 were found to be vitamin D deficient.
However, vitamin D insufficiency is not restricted to the elderly and hospitalized population; several studies have found a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among healthy, young adults. A study from Boston determined that nearly two thirds of healthy, young adults in Boston were vitamin D insufficient at the end of winter.8 International
Similar rates of vitamin D deficiency have been reported in Europe9 and Canada. A greater prevalence of vitamin D deficiency exists in Middle Eastern countries. A study of 316 young adults aged 30-50 from the Middle East showed that 72.8% had 25(OH)D values of less than 15 ng/dL (that is, severely deficient). This was significantly more common in women than in men (83.9% vs 48.5%). The difference between sexes probably reflects the cultural and religious practices leading to less skin exposure in women than in men.10,11,12,13 Mortality/Morbidity
The treatment of vitamin D insufficiency can decrease the risk of hip and nonvertebral fractures.14,15 A meta-analysis by Boonen et al of postmenopausal women and of men aged 50 years or older reporting a risk of hip fracture found that oral vitamin D supplementation reduced the risk of hip fractures by 18% when vitamin D and calcium were taken together.16 Most of the trials that demonstrated the antifracture efficacy of vitamin D used approximately 800 IU of vitamin D3. The minimum 25(OH)D level at which antifracture efficacy was observed was 30 ng/ml (74 nmol/L), suggesting a threshold for optimal levels of 25(OH)D for fracture protection. Bischoff-Ferrari et al, in another meta-analysis, evaluated the efficacy of oral vitamin D supplementation in the prevention of hip and other nonvertebral bone fractures.17 The analysis, of individuals aged 65 years or older, took into account 12 double-blind, randomized, controlled trials (RCTs) for nonvertebral fractures (n = 42,279) and 8 RCTs for hip fractures (n = 40,886), comparing the results obtained from the use of oral vitamin D (with or without calcium) with those derived from the administration of calcium alone and from placebo use.
The results indicated that vitamin D offers dose-dependent protection against fractures. In this study, doses of more than 400 IU per day were found to reduce fractures by at least 20% in individuals aged 65 years or older. In contrast to the Boonen study, the investigators maintained that these effects were independent of calcium supplementation. Vitamin D insufficiency contributes to osteoporosis by decreasing intestinal calcium absorption.5,18 Treatment of vitamin D deficiency has been shown to improve bone mineral density.19,20 An analysis of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) demonstrated a positive correlation between circulating 25(OH)D levels and bone mineral density.21
Vitamin D supplementation has been associated with a reduction in falls involving the older population. A meta-analysis demonstrated that vitamin D supplementation resulted in a reduction in falls of about 22% in ambulatory and institutionalized elderly subjects, as compared with controls.22,23 Epidemiologic data suggest that vitamin D deficiency places adults at risk for developing cancer24,25,26,27,28 ; these apparently include breast, colon, and prostate cancer.29,30 Several studies using cultured cancer cells in mice models have also supported the notion that vitamin D prevents the growth of cancers.31 Larger, randomized clinical trials are underway in humans to establish the role of vitamin D in the prevention of cancers.
Vitamin D insufficiency may increase the risk for type I and type II diabetes mellitus.32,33 In NHANES III, lower vitamin D status was associated with higher fasting glucose and 2-hour glucose after an oral glucose tolerance test.34 Furthermore, vitamin D supplementation in adults has been associated with improved insulin sensitivity in several small, case-control studies.32 A meta-analysis evaluated the effect of vitamin D supplementation (using a mean supplementation dosage of about 500 IU daily) on all-cause mortality in 18 randomized controlled trials and found a 7% relative risk reduction for death.35
Race Darker skin interferes with the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D. A study from by Holick and coauthors demonstrated that non-Hispanic black subjects require 6 times the amount of UV radiation necessary to produce the similar serum vitamin D concentration seen in non-Hispanic white subjects.36 The explanation for the increased radiation necessary to increase vitamin D levels is that melanin absorbs ultraviolet radiation.
A higher prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency exists among non-Hispanic black persons. Dawson-Hughes and colleagues demonstrated that in Boston, 73% of elderly black subjects were vitamin D insufficient, compared with 35% of elderly non-Hispanic whites.37 In a large survey of 1500 healthy black women younger than 50 years, 40% were vitamin D deficient (25OHD <16 ng/mL), as compared with 4% of 1400 white women in that study.38 The decreased efficacy of vitamin D production by darker-pigmented skin explains the higher prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency among darker-skinned adults. Age
Vitamin D production in the skin declines with advancing age, making elderly populations more dependent on dietary vitamin D. For the average older person, higher dietary intake of vitamin D may be required to achieve optimal serum levels of 25(OH)D.33 Clinical --------
History Vitamin D deficiency is often a silent disease. As previously mentioned, vitamin D deficiency in children can present as bowing of the legs from rickets. In adults, vitamin D deficiency results in osteomalacia, which presents as a poorly mineralized skeletal matrix. Adults in these cases can experience chronic muscle aches and pains.1
Vitamin D deficiency is the most common cause of nutritional rickets. Rare genetic forms of rickets occur because of defects in vitamin D metabolism. Vitamin D – dependent rickets type I occurs because of a defect in the renal 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1 alpha-hydroxylase that results in decreased 1,25(OH) 2 D production. Vitamin D – dependent rickets type II occurs when a mutation exists in the VDR. Physical
In children with a severe vitamin D deficiency, the examination may reveal bowing in the legs. In adults with a severe vitamin D deficiency, the examination can reveal periosteal bone pain. This is best detected using firm pressure on the sternal bone or tibia.
Causes Inadequate exposure to sunlight - This causes a deficiency in cutaneously synthesized vitamin D. Adults in nursing homes or health care institutions are at a particularly high risk.39
Vitamin D malabsorption problems - People who have undergone resection of the small intestine are at risk for this condition. Diseases associated with vitamin D malabsorption include celiac sprue, short bowel syndrome,40 and cystic fibrosis.41 Minimal amounts of vitamin D in human breast milk - The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends vitamin D supplementation starting at age 2 months for infants fed exclusively with breast milk.42
Medications - Some medications are associated with vitamin D deficiency. Drugs such as Dilantin, phenobarbital, and rifampin can induce hepatic p450 enzymes to accelerate the catabolism of vitamin D. More on Vitamin D Deficiency and Related Disorders
Overview: Vitamin D Deficiency and Related Disorders Differential Diagnoses & Workup: Vitamin D Deficiency and Related Disorders
Treatment & Medication: Vitamin D Deficiency and Related Disorders Follow-up: Vitamin D Deficiency and Related Disorders
Multimedia: Vitamin D Deficiency and Related Disorders References
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CLOSE WINDOW References ----------
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17. Best Evidence Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Willett WC, Wong JB, et al. Prevention of nonvertebral fractures with oral vitamin D and dose dependency: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. Mar 23 2009;169(6):551-61. Medline.
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19. Dawson-Hughes B, Harris SS, Krall EA, et al. Effect of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on bone density in men and women 65 years of age or older. N Engl J Med. Sep 4 1997;337(10):670-6. Medline. Full Text.
20. Harwood RH, Sahota O, Gaynor K, et al. A randomised, controlled comparison of different calcium and vitamin D supplementation regimens in elderly women after hip fracture: The Nottingham Neck of Femur (NONOF) Study. Age Ageing. Jan 2004;33(1):45-51. Medline. Full Text.
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55. Tangpricha V, Luo M, Fernández-Estívariz C, et al. Growth hormone favorably affects bone turnover and bone mineral density in patients with short bowel syndrome undergoing intestinal rehabilitation. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. Nov-Dec 2006;30:480-6. Medline.
CLOSE WINDOW Further Reading ---------------
Related eMedicine topics: Disorders of Bone Mineralization Hyperparathyroidism Hypocalcemia Emergency Medicine Hypocalcemia Nephrology Hypocalcemia Pediatrics: General Medicine Osteoporosis Rickets Pediatrics: General Medicine Rickets Radiology Clinical guidelines: Optimizing bone health and calcium intakes of infants, children, and adolescents. American Academy of Pediatrics - Medical Specialty Society. 1999 (revised 2006 Feb). 8 pages. NGC:004848
Prevention of rickets and vitamin D deficiency in infants, children, and adolescents. American Academy of Pediatrics - Medical Specialty Society. 2003 Apr (revised 2008 Nov). 11 pages. NGC:006924 Clinical trials: Controlled Trial of Prenatal Vitamin D3 Supplementation to Prevent Vitamin D Deficiency in Mothers and Their Infants
Defining Vitamin D Insufficiency in School Age Children: A Randomized Placebo Controlled Trial of Vitamin D3 (Vitamin D RCT) Safety of Vitamin D in the Elderly
Vitamin D Deficiency in Patients With Hypertension Vitamin D Dose-Response Study to Establish Dietary Requirements in Infants
CLOSE WINDOW Keywords --------
vitamin D deficiency, D vitamin, vitamin D, vitamin D calcium, vitamin D3, low vitamin D, rickets, osteomalacia, vitamin D2, deficiency of vitamin D, cholecalciferol, ergocalciferol, nutritional rickets, fat soluble vitamins, elevated parathyroid hormone, PTH, secondary hyperparathyroidism, vitamin B2, calcium absorption, phosphorus absorption, bone mineralization, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 1,25(OH)2D, circulating 25(OH)D, osteoporosis, bone mineral density, cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D, cutaneous vitamin D production, vitamin D synthesis, melanin, vitamin D malabsorption, calcium absorption from the small intestine, vitamin D insufficiency CLOSE WINDOW
Contributor Information and Disclosures --------------------------------------- Author
Vin Tangpricha, MD, PhD, Associate Professor of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Lipids, Emory University School of Medicine Vin Tangpricha, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Endocrinology, Endocrine Society, and Massachusetts Medical Society Disclosure: NIH Grant/research funds Other Coauthor(s)
Natasha B Khazai, MD, Instructor of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Emory University School of Medicine Natasha B Khazai, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and Endocrine Society Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. Medical Editor
Udaya M Kabadi, MD, Professor, Department of Medicine, University of Iowa College of Medicine Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. Pharmacy Editor
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine Disclosure: eMedicine Salary Employment Managing Editor
Romesh Khardori, MD, Chief, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Molecular Medicine, Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine Romesh Khardori, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, American Medical Association, American Society of Andrology, Endocrine Society, and Illinois State Medical Society Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. CME Editor
Mark Cooper, MBBS, PhD, FRACP, Head, Diabetes & Metabolism Division, Baker Heart Research Institute, Professor of Medicine, Monash University Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. Chief Editor
George T Griffing, MD, Professor of Medicine, St Louis University School of Medicine George T Griffing, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of Medical Practice Executives, American College of Physician Executives, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, American Heart Association, Central Society for Clinical Research, Endocrine Society, International Society for Clinical Densitometry, and Southern Society for Clinical Investigation Disclosure: Nothing to disclose. Search for CME/CE on This Topic »
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